Show Maybe it’s because of its diminutive size, but the apostrophe tends to be neglected and misused in equal measure. The apostrophe is used to form possessives (e.g., the school’s faculty, our family’s crest, the shirt’s collar, Bill Thomas’s house) and certain contractions (e.g., it’s, let’s, she’s, they’re, I’ve, don’t). The apostrophe is not used to form most plurals (e.g., she is looking at several schools, the families have similar crests, these shirts are on sale, we are dining with the Thomases). There are three exceptions: plurals of lowercase letters (e.g., dot your i’s and cross your t’s); plurals of certain words used as words (e.g., we need to tally the yes’s, no’s, and maybe’s); and plurals of certain abbreviations (e.g., the staff includes a dozen Ph.D.’s and four M.D.’s). Periods and commas go inside quotation marks, even if they aren’t part of the material being quoted. All other punctuation marks go outside the quotation marks, unless they are part of the material being quoted. Examples “Any further delay,” she said, “would result in a lawsuit.” His latest story is titled “The Beginning of the End”; wouldn't a better title be “The End of the Beginning”? When a parenthetical element is included at the end of a larger sentence, the terminal punctuation for the larger sentence goes outside the closing parenthesis. When a parenthetical sentence exists on its own, the terminal punctuation goes inside the closing parenthesis. Example She nonchalantly told us she would be spending her birthday in Venice (Italy, not California). (Unfortunately, we weren’t invited.) When two or more words collectively serve as an adjective before the word they are modifying, those words should normally be hyphenated. The major exception is when the first such word is an adverb ending in -ly. Example The hastily arranged meeting came on the heels of less-than-stellar earnings. The colon and the semicolon can both be used to connect two independent clauses. When the second clause expands on or explains the first, use a colon. When the clauses are merely related, but the second does not follow from the first, use a semicolon. Semicolon Only a third of Americans have a passport; the majority of Canadians have a passport. Colon Only a third of Americans have a passport: for most, foreign travel is either undesirable or unaffordable. Never end a sentence with a question mark or exclamation point followed by a period. If a sentence ends with a period that is part of an abbreviation, do not add a second period. Examples I don’t particularly like the play Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf? I didn’t like it even when I worked at Yahoo! I especially didn’t like it when I saw it at 5:00 a.m. Not all lists should be introduced with a colon. The general rule is that if the introductory text can stand as a grammatically complete sentence, use a colon; otherwise, do not. Correct Please bring the following items: a flashlight, a comfortable pair of hiking boots, and a jacket. Please bring the typical evening hiking gear: a flashlight, a comfortable pair of hiking boots, and a jacket. Please bring a flashlight, a comfortable pair of hiking boots, and a jacket. Incorrect Please bring: a flashlight, a comfortable pair of hiking boots, and a jacket. If explanatory matter can be omitted without changing the general meaning of the sentence, it should be set off with commas. If the explanatory matter is essential to the meaning of the sentence, do not set it off with commas. Correct The novelist Don DeLillo seldom gives interviews. Incorrect The novelist, Don DeLillo, seldom gives interviews. Explanation: The identity of the specific novelist is essential to the meaning of the sentence. Otherwise, there is nothing to indicate which of the multitude of novelists is being referred to. Correct America’s first president, George Washington, served from 1789 to 1797. Explanation: America has only one first president. Identifying him by name is not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Incorrect America’s first president George Washington served from 1789 to 1797. Is it U.S.A. or USA? Co-worker or coworker? Lets or let’s? Teachers’ college or teachers college? Though these examples implicate punctuation marks (the use or omission of periods, hyphens, or apostrophes), the correct form can be easily determined with a good dictionary. The easiest way to solve a vexing punctuation problem is to avoid it. If you aren’t sure how to properly punctuate a sentence—or if the proper punctuation results in a convoluted, confusing, or inelegant sentence—rewrite it. Perhaps as more than one sentence.
See also: When to Use Capital Letters Punctuation is the system of signs or symbols given to a reader to show how a sentence is constructed and how it should be read. Sentences are the building blocks used to construct written accounts. They are complete statements. Punctuation shows how the sentence should be read and makes the meaning clear. Every sentence should include at least a capital letter at the start, and a full stop, exclamation mark or question mark at the end. This basic system indicates that the sentence is complete.
The Basic Signs of Punctuation
The Comma (,)The comma is useful in a sentence when the writer wishes to:
For example, in the following sentence the phrase or clause between the commas gives us more information behind the actions of the boy, the subject of the sentence:
Note that if the phrase or clause were to be removed, the sentence would still make sense although there would be a loss of information. Alternatively, two sentences could be used:
Commas are also used to separate items in a list.For example:
Note that in a list, the final two items are linked by the word ‘and’ rather than by a comma. Commas are used to separate adjectives.For example:
As commas represent a pause, it is good practice to read your writing out loud and listen to where you make natural pauses as you read it. More often than not, you will indicate where a comma should be placed by a natural pause. Although, the ‘rules’ of where a comma needs to be placed should also be followed. For example:
Full Stop (.)A full stop should always be used to end a sentence. The full stop indicates that a point has been made and that you are about to move on to further explanations or a related point. Less frequently, a series of three full stops (an ellipsis) can be used to indicate where a section of a quotation has been omitted when it is not relevant to the text, for example:
A single full stop may also be used to indicate the abbreviation of commonly used words as in the following examples:
Exclamation Mark (!)An exclamation mark indicates strong feeling within a sentence, such as fear, anger or love. It is also used to accentuate feeling within the written spoken word. For example:
In this way, it can also be used to indicate a sharp instruction or to indicate humour The exclamation mark at the end of a sentence means that you do not need a full stop. Exclamation marks are a poor way of emphasising what you think are important points in your written assignments; the importance of the point will emphasise itself without a sequence of !!! in the text. An exclamation mark should only be used when absolutely essential, or when taken from a direct quote. The exclamation mark should be used sparingly in formal and semi-formal writing. Question Mark (?)The question mark simply indicates that a sentence is asking a question. It always comes at the end of a sentence: For example:
Note that the question mark also serves as a full stop. Semi-colon (;)The semi-colon is perhaps the most difficult sign of punctuation to use accurately. If in doubt, avoid using it and convert the added material into a new sentence. As a general rule, the semi-colon is used in the following ways: When joining two connected sentences. For example:
or
The semi-colon can also be used to assemble detailed lists. For example:
Colon (:)The colon within a sentence makes a very pointed pause between two phrases. There are two main uses of the colon: It is most commonly used when listing. For example:
Or it can be used within a heading, or descriptive title. For example:
The apostrophe, sometimes called an inverted comma has two main uses. The apostrophe indicates possession or ownership. For example:
This shows the reader that the hat belongs to the girl.
This indicates that the hats belong to the girls. Another use of the apostrophe is to indicate where a letter is omitted: For example:
Note that a common mistake is to confuse its with it’s. It’s indicates to the reader that a letter has been omitted. For example:
Note that in most formal writing, the practice of using abbreviated words is inappropriate. See also: Common Mistakes in Writing for more on using apostrophes correctly. Quotation or Speech Marks (“….”)Quotation or speech marks are used to:
For example:
It is worth noting that to report an event back does not require speech or quotation marks. For example:
Hyphen (-)The hyphen is used to link words together. For example:
The hyphen is also used when a word is split between two lines. The hyphen should be placed between syllables at the end of the upper line and indicates to the reader that the word will be completed on the next line. Computer applications such as Word Processors can be set to automatically hyphenate words for you, although it is more common to use extra spacing to avoid hyphenation. Brackets ( )Brackets always come in pairs ( ) and are used to make an aside, or a point which is not part of the main flow of a sentence. If you remove the words between the brackets, the sentence should still make sense. For example:
Another example is as follows:
Square Brackets […]A different set of square brackets [ ] can be used:
To abbreviate lengthy quotations in an essay or report
To adjust a quotation to suit your own sentenceFor example, if you were writing about class structure, you might use the following:
Note, that when using square brackets, only the occasional letter as in the above example or the occasional word (for example when changing the tense of the sentence) would be placed in square brackets in this way. Slash (/)Many people use the slash instead of or, and etc., but this is not always helpful to the reader. There is, however, a modern convention in gender-neutral writing to use ‘s/he’. Capital LettersThe correct use of capital letters is also important in writing. See our page: When to Use Capital Letters for information and examples. |