The Australian South Sea Islander community played a significant role in the development of Australia’s sugar and cotton industries. Between 1863 and 1904, an estimated 55,000 to 62,500 Islanders were brought to Australia to labour on sugar-cane and cotton farms in Queensland and northern New South Wales. [1] These labourers were called ‘Kanakas’ (a Hawaiian word meaning ‘man’) and their recruitment often involved forced removal from their homes. This practice of kidnapping labour was known as ‘blackbirding’ (‘blackbird’ was another word for slave). They came from more than 80 Pacific Islands, including Vanuatu (then called the ‘New Hebrides’) and the Solomon Islands, and to a lesser extent, from New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Kiribati and Tuvalu. Most were young men and boys aged from 9 to 30 years. There were relatively few women and girls. [2] When the first Islanders were brought to Queensland in the early 1860s, there were no laws or labour contracts to protect them from the most extreme kinds of exploitation by their employers. Many were abducted then paid nothing for their labour and were effectively treated as slaves. Later in the 1860s, a law was passed to regulate labour trafficking into Queensland and establish an indentured (contract) labour system. Under this system, Islanders signed three year contracts and were paid a meagre wage. Even under the indentured labour system Islanders continued to be exploited.
Most Islanders left Australia at the end of their contracts, although many died here. By 1901 there were 10,000 Pacific Islanders left working in the Queensland cane fields. Between 1904 and 1908, most of these workers were deported in an effort to ‘racially purify’ the new Australian nation and ‘protect’ white Australian workers from the threat of cheap labour. The Pacific Island Labourers Act of 1901 authorised these deportations and banned further recruitment after 1903. Only a minority of Islanders were permitted to stay in Australia and a few hid from authorities and stayed illegally. A history of race discriminationThe history of South Sea Islanders in Australia reveals a system of labour conditions and treatment in Queensland which discriminated on the basis of race. An estimated one-third were kidnapped or lured to Australia by trickery. Few of those signing labour contracts spoke English or understood how the system worked and what their obligations would be. Their wages were less than one-third of those paid to other labourers, including those imported from Ceylon in 1882 when the supply in the Pacific Islands dwindled. Their rights as workers were inferior to those of other labourers in other respects as well.
In line with the White Australia policy, most remaining South Sea Islanders were deported in the early 1900s – the only victims of mass deportation in Australian history. Those able to stay continued to suffer discrimination by law. They could not become citizens or purchase liquor, and those who associated with Aboriginal people were subjected to the same discriminatory and punitive laws as those applied to Indigenous Queenslanders. Recognition as a distinct communityThe Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission’s 1992 census of Australian South Sea Islanders revealed the community probably numbered between 10,000 and 12,000 people – with the majority (80%) still living in Queensland. About one-half indicated they also had Aboriginal ancestry. However, in the 2001 national census there were only 3,442 responses from people indicating their South Sea Islander ancestry. The Commission’s 1992 report, The Call for Recognition: A Report on the Situation of Australian South Sea Islanders, called on the Commonwealth Government to recognise the community as a unique minority group which is severely disadvantaged by racial discrimination. In 1994, the Commonwealth Government formally recognised Australian South Sea Islanders as a distinct community and in 2000 the Queensland Government followed suit. 1. The lowest estimate of 55,000 is from the Call for Recognition, p.1; an estimate of 61,160 is given in Evans, Saunders & Cronin, p.167; the Museum of Queensland estimate for its ‘Refined White’ exhibition was 62,500.
A history of South Sea Islanders in Australia1860s – Opening up the tropical north
1863 – ‘Coloured’ labour
For the first five years or so, many recruits had no legal protection in Queensland law and employers were largely free to exploit them at will. Only those few on formal labour contracts were protected by the Queensland Master and Servants Act 1861. [7] 1868 – Polynesian Labourers Act (Queensland) The 1868 Act established a system of indentured labour for South Sea Islanders. They were supposed to sign up to three year contracts on a minimum wage of £6 per year, payable at the end of the contract plus rations. However, some Australian South Sea Islanders today report that the system was not policed and that their forebears were not protected by contracts and did not receive any wages.
Islanders could often re-enlist at the end of their first contract. Those who did could earn up to £12 a year - still less than the minimum for other workers. A few indentured labourers were introduced from Ceylon in 1882 and received a minimum of £20 a year plus accommodation, food, clothing, medical care and return passage under different legislation. [10] 1880 – Pacific Island Labourers Act (Queensland) A licence was needed to import labourers, but would only be granted for labourers working in tropical or semi-tropical agriculture. They could not be recruited for pastoral work and could only be employed within 30 miles of the coast. An 1884 amendment explicitly banned them from domestic work, jobs in sugar mills and maritime industries, and confined them to menial jobs in agriculture such as clearing, planting and weeding. These provisions protected the more skilled jobs for white workers, such as engine-drivers, blacksmiths, mechanics and fencers. The Act imposed minimum living standards on board ship and ships’ masters had to post one bond against kidnapping and another to guarantee the return passage of labourers. The ships were supposed to return each recruit to his or her home island. However, it is believed that many were simply dumped closer to Queensland in the islands of the Torres Strait. [11] Under this law, wages had to be paid at the end of each six months in the presence of an inspector. Other provisions banned the sale or supply of alcohol, firearms and ammunition to Pacific Islanders and imposed a limit of three years on their contracts (although re-enlistment was still allowed). The legislation divided Islanders into three categories:
Living and working conditions for the labourers were extremely harsh - perhaps one in every five died during their three year contract. [13]
Mortality rates averaged 51.1 per 1,000 between 1868 and 1904, peaking at 147.7 in 1884. The rate for Anglo-Australians in tropical Queensland at the same time was 15-17 per 1,000.[15] 1883-85 – New Guinea labourers brought in illegally 1885 – Queensland bans future importation of South Sea Island labourers 1896 – Coloured Races Restriction and Regulation Act (NSW) 1901 – Pacific Island Labourers Act (Australia)
At this time, about 10,000 Pacific Islanders were living in Queensland and northern New South Wales. [19] 1904 – Commonwealth deportations begin 1906 – Royal Commission into repatriation of Islanders
In 1906, 1,200 South Sea Islanders were granted residency in Australia (in total 1,380 were able to stay) [23] and an estimated 1,000 others stayed illegally. [24] 1909 – A remnant community facing severe discrimination Islanders were usually treated with discrimination similar to that faced by Aboriginal people.
One historian has counted at least 40 pieces of discriminatory Queensland legislation between 1900 and 1940, which applied to South Sea Islanders who stayed on in Australia. [26] Most of these laws restricted their employment and income-earning opportunities. The Liquor Act 1912 prohibited the supply of alcohol to Islanders. Unions refused their membership applications and industrial awards restricted employment to union members. Islanders who associated with Aboriginal people were usually treated as Aboriginal under Queensland law. One member of the community tells of his ten years of incarceration at the Aboriginal leprosarium on Fantome Island near Ingham from the age of seven. Other non-Indigenous people with leprosy were hospitalised on Peel Island near Brisbane. [27] 1942 – Age pension granted 1950s and 1960s – Fighting for Indigenous justice 1964 – The ban on coloured labour in the sugar industry ends 1970s – Organising the community 1977 - Royal Commission into Human Relationships The Royal Commission recommended that “action should be taken to extend to them eligibility for benefits now available to Aboriginals.” [30] The recommendation was not accepted. [31] 1991 – Support from the ACTU 1992 - Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission research In addition, the incidence of diabetes for Islanders was three times the national average. And while for all Australians aged 15 and over, three in every ten had a tertiary qualification, the figure was only two in ten for Australian South Sea Islanders. [32] At the same time, Australian South Sea Islanders were generally less disadvantaged than Aboriginal people. For example, labour force participation was higher (74.8% for Islander men compared with 66% for Aboriginal men) and high school retention was more than double (73% of 16 and 17 year old Islanders were in high school compared with only 30% for Aborigines). [33] The Call for Recognition report set out a range of recommendations, starting with official recognition by governments to begin improving the access and equity of this community.
1993 – Queensland community summit 1994 – Recognition by the Commonwealth Government The major Commonwealth Government initiatives have been:
1995 – NSW Premier’s memo to Ministers 1996 – Commonwealth Government consultations with Australian South Sea Islander communities in Queensland and northern New South Wales
1996 – After Recognition: Access and Equity for Australian South Sea Islanders
1998 –Report on the health of Australian South Sea Islanders in the Tweed Valley 2000 – Recognition by the Queensland Government 2001 – Queensland Government’s action plan The action plan aims to:
The action plan is a whole-of-government initiative and Queensland Government agencies must report on their progress every year.
The major Queensland initiatives are:
1. W. Anderson, The Cultivation of Whiteness: Science, Health and Racial Destiny in Australia, Melbourne University Press, 2002, pp.85-86.
50. Queensland Government Action Plan – Australian South Sea Islander Community, 2001, p.1. References and further reading on Australian South Sea IslandersABC Online: “A Form of Slavery”, part of The Federation Story at http://www.abc.net.au/federation/fedstory/ep2/ep2_people.htm Across the Coral Sea: Photographs of Australian South Sea Islanders in Queensland: http://www.slq.qld.gov.au/whatson/coral/ Bandler: F. Bandler, Wacvie, Rigby, Adelaide, 1977. Bandler: F. Bandler, Welou, my brother, Wild & Woolley, Glebe, 1984. Evans, Saunders & Cronin: R. Evans, K. Saunders & K. Cronin, Race Relations in Colonial Queensland: A History of Exclusion, Exploitation and Extermination, University of Queensland Press, 1988. Gistitin: C. Gistitin, “South Sea Islander Women and World War II”, nd, http://www.library.cqu.edu.au/cqulibrary/cqcol/Short%20manuscripts/ Moore: C. Moore, Kanaka – A History of Melanesian Mackay, University of Papua New Guinea Press, Port Moresby, 1985. Online AccessEd: Showcase of education materials online: http://education.qld.gov.au/accessed/showcase/pop-online2.html Queensland Government information online: http://www.premiers.qld.gov.au/multicultural/assi/ The Call for Recognition: C. Menzies, The Call for Recognition, Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 1992. |